Below is the speech delivered at the World Congress for Middle Eastern Studies on August 18, 2014:
Ladies and Gentlemen, Distinguished Scholars, and Esteemed Guests,
In the 17th century, the world witnessed considerable shifts in power dynamics, with Europe gradually gaining an upper hand over the Ottoman Empire. Post the Thirty Years' War, Europe emerged into a new epoch marked by the Peace of Westphalia, albeit worn out by the prolonged conflict.
Conversely, the Ottoman Empire was equally drained by internal strife, failing to match Europe's advancements and incurring significant losses by century's end. This period saw the reign of ten Ottoman sultans, six of whom were deposed, reflecting a turbulent political landscape. This chaos within the Ottoman realm did not escape European notice, emboldening their stance against the Ottomans compared to previous centuries.
The latter half of this century was distinguished by the rule of influential monarchs such as Peter the Great, Charles XII of Sweden, and Louis XIV, whose reigns significantly impacted the modern world. As Europe reshaped under their leadership, the Ottoman Empire grappled with internal discord and external challenges.
Regarding Louis XIV's reign, it is noteworthy that he ascended to the French throne at the age of five and ruled with absolute authority until his death at 72, following his rise in a Westphalia-shaped Europe. His reign saw the diminishment of the nobility's power, almost confining them to Versailles. The French Academy and the Royal Academy, pivotal in enriching French civilization and language, were established during his childhood and flourished under his rule. Voltaire, in his renowned work "The Century of Louis XIV," extolled the advancements in science and the arts during this period. Similarly, Ernest Robert Curtius in "French Civilization" remarked, “During Louis XIV's reign, no nation achieved such maturity in establishing an administrative, intellectual, and moral France.”
In Louis' early years, France was governed by his mother, Austrian Princess Queen Anna, and Italian-born Prime Minister Cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin, continuing Cardinal Richelieu's policies, was succeeded by Colbert, who significantly advanced France. French diplomats of this era, particularly those serving in the Ottoman Empire, were highly skilled, proficient in Turkish, and effectively implemented Colbert's directives.
An examination of France's Middle East policies reveals a dual approach towards the Ottoman Empire post-Henri IV: an overt official policy and covert, partially or entirely implicit strategies involving diplomats, soldiers, or clergy of uncertain authority.
During this era, the Ottoman political arena was dominated by the harem, mired in chaos. Some sultans met tragic ends, like Young Osman, while others like Murat IV maintained their thrones with quiet authority. Apart from the Köprülü era, the Empire struggled to quell rebellions and internal conflicts.
This presentation will focus on the policies of France, particularly under Louis XIV, "Le Roi Du Soleil" (the Sun King), towards the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, and the Ottoman response to these strategies.
The tepid relations between the Ottoman Empire and France began during Louis XIII's reign, with tensions escalating under Louis XIV, largely fueled by Catholic propaganda disseminated by France within Ottoman territories.
These propaganda efforts, primarily led by Jesuits and Franciscans, with the former being more active, began in the Ottoman Empire in 1563. Under the protection of French ambassadors, these efforts persisted for 190 years until 1773. Hammer's accounts of these activities highlight their efforts to convert Jewish children and dissenting Christians to Catholicism and unite Greek Patriarch and Latin sects. French Ambassador De Breves managed their operations in St. Benoit church in Beyoğlu, and attempted to secure St. George church. The Ottoman Empire viewed Jesuits with suspicion, considering them as spies for Spain or Rome. Reports suggest that the Grand Vizier, during an encounter with the French ambassador, preferred to see ten mean ecumenical figures over a single Jesuit in Beyoğlu. The cult members, accused of subversive activities against the Empire, were summoned for trial at Divan-ı Humayun but were released following French ambassadorial intervention.
The significance of Savary de Breves in this context should be noted. As elaborated in Faruk Bilici's chapter in "Louis XIV and His Project of Conquering Istanbul," de Breves's anti-Ottoman publications advocated for the revival of the crusades and the Empire's downfall. Similar pamphlets were later presented to the King; however, Bilici has extensively covered this topic.
Under Louis XIV, Catholic propaganda continued unabated, with France establishing strong connections with communities like the Maronites and Armenians. From the 1700s, French ambassadors and missionaries in the Ottoman Empire covertly published works on Armenian history, language, and literature, while the Ottoman authorities sought to impede these activities.
The success of Catholic propaganda in the Ottoman Empire can be attributed partly to the cordial Franco-Ottoman relations. During Louis XIV's reign, these missionaries received significant moral and political backing from France, deterring the Ottoman Empire from taking strict measures against them.
Ahmet Refik, citing a letter from an Aleppo Armenian Priest to Louis XIV in his article "Catholic Propaganda in Turkey," indicated aspirations for a French king-led Armenian state. The Antioch Greek Patriarch expressed hopes for salvation from God and Louis XIV, while an Armenian Patriarch lauded Louis XIV as the "New Constantine."
In 1691, records show that 31,000 Armenians converted to Catholicism. The Ottoman administration, aware of these developments, took measures such as closing an Armenian printing house in Istanbul and replacing the imprisoned Armenian Patriarch with the dissenter Avendik in 1701. Avendik's subsequent kidnapping by the French Consul in Chios and imprisonment in the Bastille prompted the Ottoman Empire to restrict Jesuit movements. The priests, in response, attempted to hinder the implementation of this decision through bribery and the protection of the French ambassador.
Syria, particularly Damascus, Aleppo, and Sayda, became focal points for Catholic propaganda outside Istanbul, with the Maronites establishing strong ties with France. The Maronite-French connection dates back to the Crusades. In the latter half of the 17th century, student exchanges with Rome and Paris and reciprocal visits were frequent.
The 17th century also witnessed France's endeavor to amass extensive information against the Ottoman Empire. Besides diplomats, Louis XIV dispatched numerous travelers to the Ottoman lands, resulting in a plethora of works on the Empire's populace, flora, and various maps and sketches detailing cities, castles, and even gunshots.
Louis XIV's reign saw a dominant France with significant influence in Europe, reducing its dependency on the Ottoman Empire. This shift accelerated Catholic propaganda and intensified anti-Ottoman activities. The tension peaked during the reign of Grand Vizier Köprülü Mehmet Paşa, with the French Ambassador La Haye summoned to Edirne in 1658 for interrogation and imprisonment, triggering a diplomatic standoff with France.
Cardinal Mazarin's early influence in Louis XIV's reign led to policies that provoked the Ottoman Empire. In response, the Empire unleashed the Levents in Algeria against France, culminating in a French attack on Algeria in 1664, eventually repelled by Janissary Master Şaban Ağa. This incident further strained relations, leading to the dismissal and humiliation of Ambassador La Haye and the suspension of capitulations.
The strained Franco-Ottoman relations pushed France closer to its European neighbors. In 1664, under Pope Alexander VIII's encouragement, Louis XIV contributed soldiers to the Holy Alliance against the Ottoman Austrian campaign. The French Legion's participation in the Battle of St. Gotthard alongside Austria was a notable shift, with Grand Vizier Köprülü Fazıl Ahmet questioning the enemy's appearance.
The Ottoman Empire's displeasure with France's support for Austria was evident. Ambassador La Haye's return to the Empire in 1665 was met with hostility, culminating in his public humiliation and imprisonment by the Grand Vizier.
Grand Vizier Fazıl Ahmet's siege of Heraklion (Kandiye) Castle in Crete in 1669, aiming to subdue Venice, prompted French support for Venice. Despite France's intervention, Crete ultimately fell to the Ottomans, with the French forces incurring significant losses.
Post-1669, relations began to improve, with the cancellation of capitulations benefiting Dutch and English trade, putting French merchants at a disadvantage. France's renewed focus on the Mediterranean led to negotiations for new capitulations, which granted France unprecedented privileges, including tax exemptions for churches and protection for Catholics across the Empire.
Mointel's attempts to integrate the Holy Lands' rights with France faced Greek opposition, indicating the long-standing disputes over these territories dating back to the 17th century.
In 1681, French retaliation for pirate raids in Algeria and Tunisia led to a raid in Chios. The Ottoman Empire demanded an apology and compensation, which France provided, distancing itself from the incident.
The 17th century saw France's dual policy towards the Ottoman Empire: maintaining commercial interests through alliances and capitulations while aligning with Christian Europe against the Empire. The dissemination of Catholic propaganda damaged Franco-Ottoman relations, rendering France an unreliable ally.
The 2nd Siege of Vienna marked a turning point, with the Ottoman Empire's defeat leading to significant territorial losses and the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz. France's explicit opposition to the Ottoman Empire post-Vienna, coupled with its double-faced policies, isolated France in the tense pre-Spanish Succession War environment. France's attempt to use the Ottoman Empire against the Habsburgs was rebuffed, with the Empire choosing to recuperate and mistrusting France's intentions.
The Spanish Succession Wars further restrained France, with Europe united in limiting its power. The dissolution of the longstanding Franco-Ottoman alliance since François I's reign due to 17th-century policies placed a heavy burden on both nations placed a heavy burden on both nations. The Bourbon monarchy in France lost its reign 74 years after Louis XIV's death, and the Ottoman Empire entered the following century with even greater challenges, setting the stage for its eventual decline.
The dualistic approach of France towards the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century, which began under Richelieu's leadership and continued through Louis XIV's reign, was marked by a balancing act. While maintaining commercial interests through alliances and capitulations, France simultaneously adopted policies at odds with the Ottoman Empire, aligning itself with Christian Europe. The spread of Catholic propaganda during this time eroded relations, casting France as an unreliable ally of the Ottoman Empire.
Abandoning the policies that had been sustained since the time of François I, France, empowered by its newfound strength, positioned itself against the Ottoman Empire alongside Europe. However, when Europe turned against France, aiming to limit the power of Louis XIV and to distribute the vast Spanish territories, France found itself isolated. This isolation was the cost of deviating from its traditional policies, especially evident during the Spanish Succession Wars.
The incidents narrated thus far in this presentation indicate that France consistently pursued a balanced but double-faced policy towards the Ottoman Empire. The aftermath of the 2nd Siege of Vienna was particularly pivotal in world history. The Ottoman armies suffered a significant defeat and retreated from Vienna, leading to the formation of the Holy Alliance and substantial territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire, particularly underscored by the Treaty of Karlowitz.
Post-Vienna, France's overt opposition to the Ottoman Empire, coupled with its double-faced policies, had detrimental consequences for France itself. In the tense prelude to the Spanish Succession Wars, France sought to use the Ottoman Empire to distract the Habsburgs. French Ambassador Ferriol implored Grand Vizier Hüseyin Paşa to delay signing the Treaty of Karlowitz, suggesting that France's impending war against the Habsburgs would enable the Ottoman Empire to regain lost territories. However, the Ottoman Empire, weary of war and skeptical of France's past dealings, declined the offer, choosing instead to consolidate its strength. Additionally, demands by Holland and England to finalize the Treaty of Karlowitz, supporting their ally Austria, further influenced the Ottoman decision. These factors collectively ensured the Treaty's signing, keeping the Ottoman Empire out of Europe's tense atmosphere.
Europe's efforts to contain a powerful France culminated in the Spanish Succession Wars, effectively curbing French ambitions. Speculative questions such as whether continued Ottoman warfare against Austria, as desired by France, could have altered the outcome of the Spanish Succession Wars, remain unanswered. Nonetheless, it is clear that the exhaustion of the longstanding Turkish-French alliance since François I's reign, due to 17th-century policies against the Ottoman Empire, significantly burdened both nations.
France's 17th-century strategies towards the Ottoman Empire, which grew in prominence under Richelieu and Louis XIV, were inherently double-faced. While alliances and capitulations were upheld to bolster commercial interests, France did not hesitate to act against the Ottoman Empire, aligning with Christian Europe whenever advantageous. This propagation of Catholic propaganda and overall strategy rendered France a dubious ally in the eyes of the Ottoman Empire.
In turning its back on longstanding policies and aligning with Europe against the Ottoman Empire, France found itself isolated when Europe sought to curtail Louis XIV's power and divide Spain's vast territories. France paid the price for breaking from its traditional policy during the Spanish Succession Wars, exemplifying the consequences of shifting allegiances and political strategies in a complex and evolving geopolitical landscape.
Thank you very much for your patience.
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